The Mughal Court

Welcome, everyone. Today, we are going to dive into the fascinating world of the Mughal Court. Imagine walking into a grand hall filled with the finest silk carpets, sweet-smelling incense, and nobles bowing deeply before an emperor seated on a glittering peacock throne. That was the daily reality of the Mughal court.

When we study the Mughal Chronicles, we are not just reading old dusty dates of battles and kings. We are looking at a vibrant, living political center where power was constantly negotiated, culture was born, and art flourished. The court was the beating heart of the empire. Everything from the clothes people wore to the languages they spoke and the buildings they constructed was designed to project absolute majesty and authority. Let us open our history books and explore how this incredible system worked, step by step.

Meaning

Mughal chronicles are official historical texts commissioned by the Mughal emperors to record the reigns, victories, administrative setups, and cultural milestones of their dynasties. They served as both historical records and political propaganda to legitimize imperial rule.

Definitions

• According to historian Satish Chandra, "The Mughal chronicles were meticulously compiled official histories that sought to present an idealized version of imperial rule, blending Persian literary traditions with Indian administrative realities."
• Historian Harbans Mukhia defines Mughal chronicles as "sophisticated literary artifacts that reflected the worldview of the ruling elite and provided detailed insights into the ideological foundations of the empire."

Explanation

The emperors wanted the world—and future generations—to know how efficiently they governed. They hired teams of scholars, court chroniclers, and calligraphers to write down daily events, royal births, military campaigns, and administrative reforms.

• Written mostly in Persian, which was the official court language of the Mughals.
• Prominent chronicles include the Akbarnama (by Abul Fazl) and the Badshahnama (by Abdul Hamid Lahori).
• These texts combine prose, poetry, and breathtaking miniature paintings to tell the story of the empire.

Examples

• The Akbarnama, written by Abul Fazl during Akbar's reign, which details the administrative and political history of his rule across three volumes.
• The Badshahnama, written during Shah Jahan’s reign, which records the events of the first thirty years of his rule in rich chronological detail.

Real-Life Uses

In modern governance, we can think of Mughal chronicles as the ultimate official government gazettes, white papers, and state documentary archives combined. Today, governments maintain public records, Hansard parliamentary reports, and national archives to document policies and preserve historical accountability for citizens and researchers.

Common Misconceptions and Their Corrections

• Misconception: Mughal chronicles are completely objective, unbiased historical facts.
• Correction: These texts were written under imperial patronage. While rich in factual data, they deliberately emphasized the emperor's divine brilliance and downplayed imperial setbacks or administrative failures.

Concise Takeaway

Mughal chronicles are our primary window into understanding how the emperors viewed themselves and how they wanted their subjects to perceive their sovereign authority.

Meaning

Kingship in the Mughal context refers to the supreme political authority and ideological basis through which the emperor ruled over a vast, religiously and culturally diverse population.

Definitions

• Historian John F. Richards describes Mughal kingship as "an imperial institution that transcended traditional Islamic political theories by incorporating indigenous Indian traditions of sovereignty."
• Scholar Douglas E. Streusand notes that Mughal kingship was built on the concept of Farr-i izadi, representing royal power as a direct divine light emanating from God.

Explanation

Ruling India was no small task. The Mughals were Muslims ruling over a majority Hindu population. To keep the empire stable, emperors like Akbar realized they could not rely on orthodox religious laws alone. They created a new theory of kingship based on peace with all (Sulh-i kul).

• Farr-i izadi: The belief that the king received his power directly from God, making him infallible and above ordinary human conflicts.
• Sulh-i kul: Absolute peace or universal toleration. All religions and schools of thought had freedom of expression under state protection.
• The emperor acted as a paternal figure dispensing justice impartially to all subjects, regardless of faith.

Examples

• Akbar’s abolition of the discriminatory tax jizya on non-Muslim subjects in 1564 to foster social harmony.
• Jahangir’s famous "Chain of Justice," a golden chain attached to his palace bells that allowed any common subject to ring it and appeal directly to the emperor for justice.

Real-Life Uses

In modern democratic and pluralistic societies, the concept of Sulh-i kul mirrors the secular framework of constitutions. Governments must protect minority rights, promote inter-faith harmony, and ensure equal justice for all citizens regardless of their background to maintain social peace.

Common Misconceptions and Their Corrections

• Misconception: Mughal kingship was an orthodox Islamic caliphate.
• Correction: While the Mughals were Muslim, their actual political practice was highly secularized and inclusive, blending Persian, Islamic, and indigenous Hindu traditions of statecraft.

Concise Takeaway

Mughal kingship evolved from simple military conquest into a sophisticated philosophy of inclusive governance and divine authority.

Meaning

Capitals and cities in the Mughal empire represent the physical seats of imperial power, grand architectural planning, and economic hubs that symbolized the glory of the ruling monarch.

Definitions

• Architect and historian Ebba Koch defines Mughal capitals as "carefully planned imperial landscapes designed to project political ideology through urban planning and monumental architecture."
• Urban historian Indu Banga describes Mughal urban centers as "dynamic administrative, commercial, and cultural nexuses that anchored the imperial network."

Explanation

Mughal emperors did not just sit in tents; they built magnificent cities that reflected their political vision. Capitals shifted for strategic, political, and personal reasons, showcasing the aesthetic tastes of individual rulers.

• Fatehpur Sikri: Built by Akbar near Agra. It was built to honor the Sufi saint Salim Chishti. It featured a stunning blend of Persian and Gujarati architectural styles, symbolizing Akbar's inclusive vision. However, it had to be abandoned due to a shortage of water.
• Shahjahanabad: Built by Shah Jahan in Delhi. It was an imperial city featuring the majestic Red Fort, the sprawling Jama Masjid, and the bustling Chandni Chowk market canal system designed by Jahanara Begum.

Examples

• The Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri, built to commemorate Akbar's victory over Gujarat.
• The Red Fort in Shahjahanabad, serving as the residential and administrative nerve center of the late Mughal empire.

Real-Life Uses

Modern urban planning uses similar concepts when designing capital cities (like Washington D.C., New Delhi, or Brasilia). Governments deliberately plan monumental administrative districts, public parks, and commercial zones to project national identity and streamline civic administration.

Common Misconceptions and Their Corrections

• Misconception: Fatehpur Sikri was abandoned because of sudden enemy invasions.
• Correction: It was abandoned primarily due to severe water scarcity and environmental challenges in the region, not military defeat.

Concise Takeaway

Mughal capitals were masterclasses in urban planning, blending political statements with architectural brilliance.

Meaning

Court culture refers to the elaborate codes of conduct, formal rituals, gift-giving customs, and artistic expressions that governed daily interactions within the imperial presence.

Definitions

• Historian Rosalind O'Hanlon describes Mughal court culture as "a highly choreographed theatrical space where social hierarchies were constantly performed, negotiated, and reinforced."
• Scholar Azra Raza views court culture as "a refined synthesis of Persian literary elegance and Indian aesthetic sensibility that elevated etiquette to an art form."

Explanation

You could not simply walk up to a Mughal emperor and say hello. Everything inside the court was governed by strict rules of etiquette (Adab). These rituals visually demonstrated who held power and who was subordinate.

• Sijda and Zamin-bos: Forms of prostration and kissing the ground before the emperor. Akbar introduced these to emphasize his divine status, though orthodox critics disliked them.
• Jharokha Darshan: Akbar started the daily ritual of presenting himself to the public from a balcony at sunrise, allowing common people, soldiers, and nobles to catch a glimpse of the sovereign.
• Jashn (Festivals): Grand celebrations held during Persian New Year (Nauroz), the emperor's birthdays (weighed against gold and silver in a ceremony called tuladan), and religious events.

Examples

• The custom of presenting nazr (tribute or gift of gold coins) by nobles to the emperor to reaffirm loyalty.
• The elaborate seating arrangements in the Diwan-i-Aam (Hall of Public Audience), where nobles stood in precise rows according to their military rank.

Real-Life Uses

Modern diplomatic protocols, state dinners, military parades, and swearing-in ceremonies use structured rituals and protocols to maintain order, respect, and dignity between heads of state and visiting dignitaries.

Common Misconceptions and Their Corrections

• Misconception: Jharokha Darshan was merely an empty ritual without political meaning.
• Correction: It was a brilliant political strategy that connected the emperor directly with the masses, bypassing corrupt officials and building emotional loyalty.

Concise Takeaway

Court culture turned politics into a grand theater where every bow, gift, and glance reinforced imperial authority.

Meaning

The nobility refers to the elite ruling class of military commanders, governors, and administrators who held ranks in the Mughal administrative apparatus and helped govern the empire.

Definitions

• Historian Athar Ali defines the Mughal nobility as "a heterogeneous ruling class composed of diverse ethnic and religious groups welded together by the imperial hierarchy of the Mansabdari system."
• Historian Shireen Moosvi describes the nobility as "the primary extractors and consumers of the agrarian surplus generated by the Indian peasantry."

Explanation

An empire cannot be run by one man. The Mughals recruited talented individuals from across Central Asia, Iran, and India to form their ruling class. To manage them without letting anyone become too powerful, Akbar introduced the Mansabdari System.

• Mansab: A numerical rank that determined a noble’s status, salary, and military obligations (providing cavalry troops).
• Zat and Sawar ranks: Zat indicated personal status and salary, while Sawar indicated the actual number of horsemen a noble had to maintain.
• Ethnic balance: To prevent rebellions, Akbar deliberately balanced different groups—Turkics, Iranians, Afghans, Rajputs, and later Marathas—so no single faction could overthrow the throne.

Examples

• Raja Man Singh of Amber holding a high mansab rank, proving that non-Muslim Hindu nobles held supreme military commands.
• The transfer of nobles from one province to another every few years to prevent them from building local power bases.

Real-Life Uses

Modern civil service systems (like the IAS in India or federal bureaucratic structures in the US) use a similar merit-based grading, transfer policy, and hierarchical rank system to ensure administrative efficiency and prevent regional corruption.

Common Misconceptions and Their Corrections

• Misconception: Mansabdars were hereditary feudal lords who owned their lands permanently.
• Correction: Mansabs were not automatically hereditary. Upon a noble's death, their property and horses reverted to the state treasury, preventing the rise of independent feudal warlords.

Concise Takeaway

The Mansabdari system was the administrative glue that held the vast Mughal machinery together.

Meaning

The imperial household encompasses the private residential quarters of the emperor, including his wives, mother, female relatives, children, servants, and guards, operating as a vital political and economic institution.

Definitions

• Historian Ruby Lal writes that the Mughal imperial household was "not a secluded space of passive imprisonment, but an active political center where royal women exercised considerable authority and agency."
• Scholar Skidmore describes the harem as "a sophisticated, self-governing female administration that mirrored the structure of the outer court."

Explanation

When people hear "harem," they often imagine a secluded prison. In reality, the Mughal imperial household (often called the Harem or Mahal) was a bustling, highly organized city within the palace. Women of the royal family were educated, financially independent, and deeply involved in politics.

• Guarded strictly by female guards (Urdu Behis) and eunuchs for security.
• Senior women like Gulbadan Begum, Nur Jahan, and Jahanara Begum wielded immense political influence, issued royal orders (nishans), and owned vast commercial properties.
• Royal women were crucial mediators during succession crises and family disputes.

Examples

• Gulbadan Begum writing the Humayun-nama at the request of Emperor Akbar, recording intimate details of early Mughal history.
• Nur Jahan issuing coins in her own name alongside Jahangir and running state affairs effectively during his illness.

Real-Life Uses

In modern corporate governance and executive management, executive offices, private secretariats, and advisory boards function as trusted inner circles where critical, confidential decisions are made before public announcements.

Common Misconceptions and Their Corrections

• Misconception: Mughal women were voiceless victims locked away behind heavy curtains.
• Correction: Many royal women were politically astute, wealthy patrons of architecture, and active participants in international trade and state diplomacy.

Concise Takeaway

The imperial household was a powerhouse of female agency, patronage, and political maneuvering.

Meaning

Art and architecture refer to the vibrant visual culture, miniature painting traditions, and monumental buildings patronized by Mughal emperors to display wealth, taste, and divine mandate.

Definitions

• Art historian Percy Brown states, "Mughal architecture was a glorious synthesis of Persian refinement and indigenous Indian vitality, producing some of the world's most breathtaking structures."
• Historian Milo Beach notes that Mughal painting evolved as an imperial workshop tradition that meticulously documented court life, flora, fauna, and historical events.

Explanation

The Mughals loved beauty and used art as a political tool. If you want people to respect your rule, build buildings so grand that they look like paradise on earth.

• Architecture: Characterized by bulbous domes, symmetrical gardens (charbagh style), delicate marble lattice work (jali), and pietra dura (inlaid semi-precious stones).
• Painting: Mughal miniature paintings captured portraits, battle scenes, and natural history with astonishing detail. Painters worked in collaborative workshops (karkhanas).

Examples

• The Taj Mahal in Agra, built by Shah Jahan as a mausoleum for his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal.
• Humayun’s Tomb in Delhi, introducing the double-dome architectural style to India.

Real-Life Uses

Modern branding, corporate architecture (like iconic skyscraper headquarters), and national monuments use design, lighting, and grand spaces to project prestige, corporate identity, and cultural power.

Common Misconceptions and Their Corrections

• Misconception: Mughal art was purely Islamic and restricted religious imagery.
• Correction: Mughal painting freely integrated Hindu mythological themes (when translated into Persian), European Christian motifs (brought by Jesuit priests), and realistic portraits of living people.

Concise Takeaway

Mughal art and architecture remain timeless testaments to an era where engineering met absolute aesthetic grace.

Even though the Mughal court existed centuries ago, the managerial principles behind it are actively used today in various modern sectors:

1. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Systems: The meticulous record-keeping found in Mughal chronicles and revenue registers (Ain-i Akbari) mirrors modern database management systems and ERP software used by corporations to track inventory, payroll, and personnel.
2. Human Resource Grading Structures: The Mansabdari system's division of ranks (Zat and Sawar) is directly comparable to modern corporate leveling, employee grading systems, and performance-linked compensation packages.
3. Public Relations and Branding: Rituals like Jharokha Darshan and commissioning chronicles are early forms of PR, corporate communication, and brand image management used by modern political campaigns and global corporations.

To truly understand how the Mughal court functioned as a living organism, we must step inside the capital city of Shahjahanabad during the reign of Emperor Shah Jahan in the mid seventeenth century. Built along the banks of the Yamuna River, Shahjahanabad was not merely a city; it was an architectural masterpiece designed to mirror the cosmos with the emperor positioned at its spiritual and political center.

The day in the imperial court began well before sunrise. Inside the sprawling Red Fort, or Lal Qila, the royal household stirred to life. Empress Mumtaz Mahal (in earlier years) or senior royal women like Princess Jahanara Begum oversaw the intricate management of the imperial household, which housed thousands of residents, including guards, artisans, noblewomen, and servants. This inner city operated with the precision of a modern government agency, complete with dedicated treasuries, administrative offices, and judicial departments managed by trusted female and male officials.

As the morning sun crested the horizon, Emperor Shah Jahan appeared at the palace balcony for Jharokha Darshan. Down below on the sandy banks of the river and in the open courtyards, a massive sea of humanity gathered. Peasants, merchants, foreign travelers, and common soldiers strained their necks just to catch a glimpse of the emperor. This daily ritual was a stroke of administrative genius. It allowed ordinary subjects to bypass corrupt local bureaucrats and feel a direct emotional connection to the sovereign. Petitions were tossed up in cloth bundles, caught by royal attendants, and later reviewed by the imperial courts.

Following Jharokha Darshan, the emperor moved to the Diwan-i-Aam (Hall of Public Audience). Here, the court culture came alive in all its theatrical splendor. The hall was adorned with rich velvet canopies, gold-plated pillars, and fragrant flower arrangements. Nobles holding ranks within the Mansabdari System stood in rigid, hierarchical rows according to their precise Zat and Sawar numbers. A high-ranking noble from Iran stood on one side, while a Rajput chieftain stood on the other, maintaining the delicate ethnic balance designed to prevent factional revolts.

During this audience, nobles stepped forward to offer nazr (tribute) in the form of gold coins, jewels, or fine horses, publicly reaffirming their loyalty to the crown. The emperor inspected military muster rolls, reviewed revenue reports compiled by provincial governors, and dispensed justice impartially. If a noble failed to maintain his quota of cavalrymen or mismanaged his assigned territory (jagir), imperial clerks immediately recorded the penalty. The administrative records of this session were meticulously documented by court chroniclers like Abdul Hamid Lahori, author of the Badshahnama, ensuring that every royal decree and political event was preserved for posterity.

Later in the day, the emperor transitioned to the Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private Audience), where intimate political discussions, diplomatic meetings with foreign ambassadors from Persia and Europe, and policy debates took place. Here, sitting beneath the legendary Peacock Throne encrusted with rubies, emeralds, and diamonds, Shah Jahan negotiated trade treaties and discussed imperial expansion.

Meanwhile, just outside the fortress walls, the city of Shahjahanabad buzzed with economic vitality. Canals designed by Jahanara flowed through the bustling market of Chandni Chowk, where merchants sold silk from Bengal, carpets from Persia, and spices from the south. Artisans in royal karkhanas (workshops) carved marble panels and painted delicate miniatures that captured the majesty of the court.

Through this integrated system of divine kingship, meticulous record-keeping, balanced nobility, grand architecture, and vibrant urban planning, the Mughal court maintained its grip on an empire of millions, leaving behind a legacy that continues to captivate historians and students alike.

1. Which Persian text is the official chronicle of Akbar’s reign written by Abul Fazl?
   A) Badshahnama
   B) Humayun-nama
   C) Akbarnama
   D) Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri
   Answer: C
   Explanation: The Akbarnama was meticulously compiled by Abul Fazl across three volumes to document the administrative and political history of Emperor Akbar.
2. What does the term Sulh-i kul, introduced during the Mughal era, mean?
   A) Holy war
   B) Absolute peace or universal toleration
   C) Land revenue tax
   D) Military commander rank
   Answer: B
   Explanation: Sulh-i kul translates to absolute peace or universal toleration, serving as the philosophical foundation for religious harmony under Akbar.
3. Which Mughal emperor is credited with introducing the Mansabdari system?
   A) Babur
   B) Humayun
   C) Akbar
   D) Aurangzeb
   Answer: C
   Explanation: Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system to grade civil and military officials and effectively manage the diverse nobility.
4. What was the primary purpose of the daily ritual known as Jharokha Darshan?
   A) To collect taxes from foreign merchants
   B) To present the emperor directly to the public and build popular loyalty
   C) To sign military treaties with neighboring kingdoms
   D) To punish corrupt nobles in public
   Answer: B
   Explanation: Jharokha Darshan allowed the emperor to connect directly with the masses at sunrise, bypassing middlemen and strengthening emotional ties.
5. Who built the imperial city of Shahjahanabad in Delhi?
   A) Akbar
   B) Jahangir
   C) Shah Jahan
   D) Bahadur Shah Zafar
   Answer: C
   Explanation: Shah Jahan founded Shahjahanabad as his new capital in 1639, featuring the Red Fort and Jama Masjid.
6. What did the term Zat signify in the Mansabdari system?
   A) The number of horses a noble must maintain
   B) The personal status and salary rank of the noble
   C) The religious tax paid by non-Muslims
   D) The architectural style of royal palaces
   Answer: B
   Explanation: In the dual-rank Mansabdari system, Zat indicated the noble's personal rank and salary, while Sawar denoted cavalry obligations.
7. Who authored the historical text Humayun-nama?
   A) Nur Jahan
   B) Mumtaz Mahal
   C) Gulbadan Begum
   D) Jahanara Begum
   Answer: C
   Explanation: Gulbadan Begum, sister of Humayun, wrote Humayun-nama at Akbar’s request to document early Mughal court history.
8. What architectural feature characterized Mughal monuments like the Taj Mahal and Humayun’s Tomb?
   A) Pyramidal roofs
   B) Bulbous domes and symmetrical charbagh gardens
   C) Underground subterranean chambers
   D) Gothic flying buttresses
   Answer: B
   Explanation: Mughal architecture famously utilized bulbous domes, symmetrical charbagh gardens, and intricate marble inlay work.
9. What was the main reason behind the abandonment of Fatehpur Sikri?
   A) Defeat by enemy armies
   B) Severe water scarcity and environmental challenges
   C) An outbreak of plague
   D) Earthquake destruction
   Answer: B
   Explanation: Despite its architectural beauty, Fatehpur Sikri lacked a sustainable water supply, forcing the court to relocate.
10. What does the concept of Farr-i izadi represent in Mughal political theory?
    A) Hereditary feudal land ownership
    B) Royal power as a divine light emanating directly from God
    C) The obligation of peasants to pay agrarian tax
    D) The code of conduct for court painters
    Answer: B
    Explanation: Farr-i izadi was the ideological belief that the emperor received his sovereign authority and divine illumination directly from God.

1. Q1. What are Mughal chronicles, and why are they considered essential historical sources?
   Answer: Mughal chronicles are official historical texts commissioned by emperors (such as the Akbarnama and Badshahnama). They are essential because they provide exhaustive details on administrative policies, military campaigns, social structures, and cultural milestones of the empire, written by skilled scholars under imperial patronage.
2. Q2. Explain the concept of Sulh-i kul and its significance in Mughal governance.
   Answer: Sulh-i kul means absolute peace or universal toleration. Its significance lies in its departure from orthodox religious governance. It allowed emperors like Akbar to rule a religiously diverse population peacefully by treating all faiths with equal respect and protection.
3. Q3. How did the Mansabdari system function as the administrative backbone of the Mughal Empire?
   Answer: The Mansabdari system assigned numerical ranks (Zat and Sawar) to civil and military officials. It fixed their salaries, determined their military obligations (providing cavalry troops), and allowed the emperor to recruit a diverse nobility while preventing hereditary feudal uprisings through regular transfers.
4. Q4. Discuss the political and administrative role of women in the Mughal imperial household.
   Answer: Royal women in the imperial household (such as Gulbadan Begum, Nur Jahan, and Jahanara) were far from secluded victims. They owned vast commercial properties, engaged in international trade, issued royal orders (nishans), patronized grand architecture, and acted as vital political mediators during succession crises.
5. Q5. Why did Akbar shift his capital to Fatehpur Sikri, and why was it eventually abandoned?
   Answer: Akbar shifted his capital to Fatehpur Sikri to honor the Sufi saint Salim Chishti and to establish a centralized administrative hub. It was eventually abandoned due to severe regional water scarcity and environmental unsustainability.
6. Q6. Describe the significance of court rituals such as Jharokha Darshan and Sijda.
   Answer: Jharokha Darshan allowed the emperor to present himself daily to the public, fostering direct loyalty and emotional connection with common subjects. Sijda (prostration) was a court ritual introduced to visually reinforce the supreme, semi-divine authority of the sovereign over the nobility.
7. Q7. How did Mughal painting traditions evolve under imperial patronage?
   Answer: Mughal painting evolved in imperial workshops (karkhanas) where artists collaborated on illustrated manuscripts. The style blended Persian refinement with Indian realism and European motifs, capturing vivid portraits of nobles, flora, fauna, and historical events.
8. Q8. What were the key architectural features of Mughal monuments during Shah Jahan's reign?
   Answer: Shah Jahan’s architecture emphasized white marble, pietra dura inlay work, symmetrical charbagh garden layouts, bulbous double domes, and graceful arched facades, best exemplified by the Taj Mahal and the Red Fort.
9. Q9. How did the Mughals maintain ethnic balance within their nobility to prevent civil strife?
   Answer: The Mughals deliberately recruited diverse ethnic and religious groups—including Turkics, Iranians, Afghans, Rajputs, and later Marathas—into the Mansabdari system, ensuring that no single faction could dominate or overthrow the imperial throne.
10. Q10. In what ways do Mughal administrative practices resemble modern government systems?
    Answer: Mughal administration mirrors modern systems through centralized bureaucratic grading (Mansabdari resembling civil service ranks), meticulous record-keeping (chronicles acting as state archives), and public relations strategies (Jharokha Darshan acting as public outreach).

Memory Tricks & Mnemonics

• Mnemonic for Prominent Mughal Chronicles (A, B, T):
  "All Books Triumph"
  - A: Akbarnama (Akbar)
  - B: Badshahnama (Shah Jahan)
  - T: Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (Jahangir)
• Mnemonic for Key Elements of Mughal Court Culture:
  "Clever Kings Craft Cute Noble Household Art"
  - Chronicles, Kingship, Capitals, Court Culture, Nobility, Household, Art & Architecture.

Frequently Confused Concepts

• Zat vs. Sawar:
  Remember that Zat relates to Zar (money/status)—it represents the personal rank and salary. Sawar relates to Saari (riding/horses)—it represents the actual number of cavalrymen the noble had to maintain.
• Fatehpur Sikri vs. Shahjahanabad:
  Fatehpur Sikri was built by Akbar near Agra as a short-lived administrative capital abandoned due to water issues. Shahjahanabad was built by Shah Jahan in Delhi as a permanent grand capital featuring the Red Fort.